Economic and Political Analysis of Initial Teacher Education from Consensus and Conflict Perspectives in Documents of International Institutions

Initial teacher education Entrepreneurship Life-long learning Diversity Accountability This study aims to reveal the economic and political issues underlying the remarks related to initial teacher education (ITE) in the documents published by international institutions, European Union (EU), Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and United Nations (UN), and to examine these issues from the perspective of consensus and conflict approaches to education. The study is designed as a systematic review. ITE-related 67 documents published by UN, EU, and OECD were analyzed following several coding steps. According to the results, international institutions promote entrepreneurship, life-long learning, and information and communication technologies as economic issues in ITE. As political issues, they put forward social themes including preparing for diversity, quality in ITE including accountability and standards, and structure of ITE including flexibility and autonomy. Although the documents are mainly parallel with the consensus approach, economic and political issues revealed in the study were discussed from perspectives of both approaches. One perspective considers promoting the economic issues in ITE the economic efficiency and growth which is beneficial for all. The other reminds that division of this benefit may include classbased inequalities. Also, different perspectives emphasize different social themes and they bring different explanations for how the quality assurance functions. Article Info: Received Accepted Published : 30-10-2021 : 01-03-2022 : 18-06-2022


Introduction
Education always undertakes very important roles for the society. Without a doubt, its role can be appreciated differently from different perspectives such as the consensus and conflict approaches to education. The consensus approach considers society as an organism, and each institution of this organism has specific functions (Lauder, Brown, Dillabough, & Halsey, 2006). According to Durkheim (2006), the functions of the education institutions are the selection and socialization of children in the process of defining their own future roles in order to create a social and democratic environment. In this context, the first function is considered as contributing to the economic efficiency by selecting a qualified labor force (Becker, 2006) and social justice by ensuring the fairness of selection based on meritocracy (Young, 1961). Yet, the second functions to help individuals to adapt to the society so that the benefit of society is prioritized rather than the interests of individuals (Durkheim, 2006); therefore, it contributes to social harmony and order.
The conflict approach questions fairness of selection and cost of social order instead of taking them for granted. Proponents of this approach believe that the students from different social classes do not have equal opportunities to be successful in education and obtain wellpaid and prestigious jobs in return (Bourdieu, 2015;Bowles & Gintis, 2011;Halsey, Heath, & Ridge, 1980), thus, there is a systematic inequality in selection. Also, they defend that education is based on the ideology of the upper classes and transmits dominant ideologies (Althusser, 2016). This causes not only the reproduction of class-based inequalities. But also, there are inequalities based on gender, race, and cultural differences (Apple, 2004;Arnot & Dillabough, 1999;Gillborn & Youdell, 2009). Therefore, socialization directed to ensure social order is criticized and seen as a control mechanism. The concepts of the consensus and conflict approaches to education and the conceptual model used this study are summarized in Figure  1. As it can be seen in Figure 1, the functions and assumptions of education according to the consensus and conflict approaches are compared and categorized into two groups: economic issues and political issues. At this point, to make operational definitions of the two categories, it can be said that economic and political issues correspond to all kinds of content, goals, approaches, etc. in the educational context. Both approaches discuss economic issues related to education, but their perspectives differ from and even contradict one another. The consensus approach includes the creation of a qualified labor force (Sönmez, 2012) among the very first aims of education. The conflict approach defines this aim as to "produce labor power with the skills and ideologically compliant attitudes to develop a workforce from which surplus value can be extracted" (Hill, 2007, p. 204). Also, the consensus approach considers political issues in education as adapting individuals to the community so as to ensure social order and harmony (Durkheim, 2006). However, according to the conflict approach these issues can cause cultural (Apple, 2004), racial (Ladson-Billings & Tate IV, 2006), and gender-based (Arnot & Dillabough, 1999) inequalities.
Consensus and conflict approaches portray two different landscapes of education, it can be said that teacher education has a place in these landscapes. Because the teacher plays a key role on that education looks like to which one of the landscapes. It is possible to say that the curriculum includes economic and political issues (Kelly, 2009) but that the determinant of the extent to which this content reaches students is the teacher. Therefore, teacher education gains importance, and the question of how these issues are incorporated into teacher education comes to mind. Because, in determining the quality of education, the most significant variable is the teacher (Darling-Hammond, 2012), and teacher education is the prior condition for improving, reorganizing, or changing education (Flores, 2016). Furthermore, initial teacher education (ITE) is generally seen as a more responsible, criticized, and intervened dimension of the teacher education continuum (Loughran & Hamilton, 2016), and most reconstruction and remediation processes focus on ITE. In addition to these, teacher education is a value-added area (Hansen, 2008) and approaches to teacher education vary just like approaches to education. Therefore, economic and political issues in teacher education are also worthy of discussion, especially from different perspectives.
In this regard, an important thing is which actors have a role in designing ITE and its curriculum. Actually, the main actors shaping teacher education are not only at the national level but also international level. At the international level, international organizations like the UN, EU, and OECD with their goals, standards, criteria, and advice for their member and prospective countries (Buchberger;Campos, Kallos, Stevenson, 2000) and international examinations like Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) and Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) (Craig, 2016) have the potential to affect what is important in teacher education. To understand their focus and views about ITE, examining their documents is a proper way. However, to follow this proper way properly requires a systematic review of documents. At this point, the aims of the systematic review can be stated as the purpose of the study.

Purpose of the Study
In light of this information, this study aims to reveal economic and political issues underlying utterances related to ITE in the documents published by international institutions, and to discuss these issues from the perspectives of consensus and conflict approaches to education. The research questions leading to this study are as follows: (1) What kind of economic issues related to ITE exist in the documents published by European Union (EU), Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and United Nations (UN).
(2) What kind of political issues related to ITE exist in the documents published by EU, OECD, and UN.

Research Design
The present study, which aims to reveal economic and political issues embedded in international documents related to teacher education, has a qualitative approach by nature. The study is designed as a systematic review to analyze the documents. Document analysis is defined as systematic review, analysis, and evaluation of documents (Bowen, 2009). On this basis, in this study, the methodology of systematic review is used to design document analysis. Originally, systematic reviews mainly focus on analyzing original previous studies and collecting empirical evidences from them (Higgins, Thomas & Lasseron, 2019;Torgerson, 2003). However, many research organizations underline the importance of grey literature, which includes policy papers, government reports, and other documents not published by commercial publishers, in systematic reviews (Aromataris & Munn, 2020;Lefebvre et al., 2019). This study reviews the documents as pieces of gray literature using stages of systematic review (Karaçam, 2013;Torgerson, 2003). The aims of the systematic review are presented in the introduction part and other details of the protocol or plan of the systematic review are presented in the method part of the article.

Data Sources
The data of the research are comprised of international documents related to teacher education. As the search (Torgerson, 2003) or scanning (Karaçam, 2013) stage of the systematic review, the documents to be analyzed were determined in a few steps. Firstly, the international organizations having published documents were selected based on the following criteria: (1) having teacher education as an area of interest, (2) making evaluations of teacher education and sharing results and advice online, and (3) having a wider impact area. In this way, the UN which targets to increase qualified teacher supply in sustainable development goals (United Nations [UN], 2016); EU which aims to improve quality of teacher education in its legislation (European Union [EU], 2007) and OECD which specifies initial teacher preparation as an area of work (OECD, n.d.) were selected as document publishers. Documents of these institutions were selected based on the following inclusion and exclusion criteria (Torgerson, 2003). Documents, including policy papers, reports, council conclusions, etc., published by these organizations between 2000 and 2018 were included in the study. Here, the year 2000 was selected as the beginning point because after that time the institutions published their documents online more frequently. 2018 was the endpoint because the document analysis started in 2019. At first, online libraries of these organizations were scanned with the criterion of including key words teacher education, teacher training, teacher, and faculty of education in full texts. In this way, 459 documents related to teacher education were collected and reviewed. Based on the criterion of having content on economic and political issues in ITE, a considerable number of documents were excluded. What is done here corresponds to scoping or mapping stage of systematic review since the documents for full systematic review were decided (Torgerson, 2003). In the end, 67 documents -23 published by the UN, 32 by the EU, and 12 by the OECD -were analyzed qualitatively in the study. Table 1 shows the number of documents, the publication year, and total pages. The list of the documents is available in Appendix.

Data Analysis
In the study, Strauss and Corbin's (1998) qualitative analysis steps were used in such a way as to accommodate them with the aims and data of the study. With this analysis, the data extraction stage of systematic review (Torgerson, 2003) is realized. During the analysis, MAXQDA 2018 was utilized. After examining all documents related to teacher education, data concerning economic and political issues were coded through open coding, in which codes begin to be revealed in the data (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). That is, coding was based on concepts that emerged in the data rather than on the pre-determined codes. Firstly, the documents were read one by one and candidate code names were attached to the relevant parts of them. Then, the code candidates and document parts they represented were compared, and the established codes were extracted. In Figure 2, a screenshot from the "retrieved segments" window of MAXQDA 2018 in which the comparisons were made, was presented. In the axial coding (Strauss & Corbin, 1998), the emergent codes were examined in terms of similarities, differences and hierarchies. Then, the codes were organized based on these relations, and thereby, the themes and sub-themes were extracted.

Trustworthiness of the Research
In this study, to enhance credibility, some of the strategies suggested by Patton (2015) were utilized. Firstly, "constant comparison" (Patton, 2015, p. 658) was a useful strategy to ensure consistency and accuracy of codes, sub-themes and themes. During the open coding process, when coding new data in a document, all data coded with that code were retrieved from all documents in one page via MAXQDA2018 and compared with the new data. Also, in the axial coding, multiple comparisons were made among themes, sub-themes and codes. The second strategy was "keeping the analysis qualitative" (Patton, 2015, p. 660). In this vein, neither coding frequencies were presented, nor were coded with higher frequency focused on more. Instead of numbers, many quotations from the documents were included in the article to show connections between data, and codes or themes.
Furthermore, having two adverse perspectives -consensus and conflict approaches -in the study also contributed to the credibility. Deriving conclusions based on findings and discussing these conclusions from the two perspectives made it easier to undertake "theory triangulation" (Patton, 2015, p. 671). The two perspectives also made "generating alternative conclusions and rival explanations" possible in the data analysis because the two perspectives made it necessary to examine the data with different eyes. The examination of the data with different eyes, in other words, "analyst triangulation" (Patton, 2015, p. 665) or "double data extraction" (Torgerson, 2003, p. 25), was realized literally by the two researchers of the study. The researchers have different but somehow complementary features. While one has taught teacher candidates for many years, the other has taught in K-12. Also, in terms of the intellectual positioning one stands closer to the conflict approach whereas the other to the consensus approach. Their role was to reflect the competing perspectives into the study so that its credibility was enhanced.

Results
The results are given under two main headings in line with the sub-research questions which focus on economic issues and political issues related to ITE in the documents.
"Education and training should contribute to encouraging entrepreneurship, by fostering the right mindset, awareness of career opportunities as an entrepreneur and skills." (EU, 2003, p. 12).
"Set-up incentives at school level to enable teachers to teach entrepreneurship, for instance utilizing setting up staff development funds …" (EU, 2006b, p. 2).
It can be said that especially the issues of entrepreneurship education and encouragement of teachers about entrepreneurship contribute to the fact that entrepreneurship became important for ITE. Moreover, there are documents emphasizing entrepreneurship in ITE explicitly. Firstly, needs and deficiencies concerning entrepreneurship in ITE are mentioned. Another issue revealed is making regulations in the curriculum and teaching methods in ITE, such as adapting course contents and instruction so as to improve teacher candidates' entrepreneurship and teaching skills for entrepreneurship.
"The current provision of specific training for teachers on the subject of entrepreneurship is largely insufficient, both as regards initial training in teachers' colleges and further vocational training available for the teachers during their career. This is a major obstacle to introducing the concept of entrepreneurship into the classes." (EU, 2002, p. 8).
"Adopt innovative methods to train teachers in entrepreneurship. These would include case studies and other interactive methods, such as involving teachers in real work on enterprise projects or even in running themselves a mini-company. By acquiring direct experience, teachers will be more effective when using these methods with the students." (EU, 2006b, p. 2).
To sum up, entrepreneurship is an important economic issue in ITE-related documents published by international organizations. Therefore, possible effects like regulations in courses, aims, contents, methods, etc. are expected to be reflected in the national ITE curricula of countries that are in the impact area of these organizations.

Theme 2: Life-Long Learning (LLL)
LLL theme was classified as an economic issue since it is mostly associated with labor productivity. Competent teachers need to improve and update their knowledge and skills lifelong. This process is named as continuing professional development (CPD) of teachers (Scales, 2008;Scales et al., 2011) and it can be associated with the economic productivity of labor in the education sector.
In the documents of the international organizations, the importance of LLL in keeping pace with change and evolution is emphasized. The point that emerges here is that science, technology, and people, and so the world and knowledge, have been changing rapidly and teachers, before everyone, need to keep up with these, and the way to achieve this is LLL.
"Teachers should be encouraged to review evidence of effective practice and engage with current innovation and research in order to keep pace with the evolving knowledge society." (EU, 2005, p. 2).
"Greater efforts are needed to engage the teaching profession and the general public with the implications of education for lifelong learning and the opportunities which it provides." (OECD, 2002a, p. 31).
According to the documents, teachers need to be competent in LLL and this can be possible if LLL is included in teacher education, both initial and in-service.
"Teachers should be equipped to respond to the evolving challenges of the knowledge society, participate actively in it and prepare learners to be autonomous lifelong learners." (EU, 2005, p. 1).
"Initial Teacher Education needs to be considered as a starting point for this ongoing process of professional development. It lays the foundation for this mindset and this approach." (EU, 2015b, p. 8).
Providing LLL-related courses or course contents, teaching methods, or more extensively, a pedagogic approach in ITE that can internalize LLL, is suggested. However, such an effort needs teacher educators to improve themselves in LLL because, without the teacher educator dimension, any effort to improve ITE in terms of LLL is condemned to fail.
"Teacher educators should be responsible for providing high-quality support to (student) teachers, modeling attitudes of lifelong learning." (EU, 2013a, p. 36).
"The context in which teacher educators work changes over the years. Structures… curriculum, and the teaching profession itself are all subject to change … Thus, lifelong learning is important for sustaining the high-quality performance of teacher educators." (EU, 2013a, p. 22).
CPD for teachers is a concept of in-service teacher education. However, CPD is one of the application areas of teachers' LLL skills on which teacher candidates are supposed to become competent during ITE. Creating opportunities for CPD and giving incentives for CPD are referred to frequently in the documents related to teacher education.
"View teachers' development as a lifelong learning experience in order to cater for the rapid changes in schools, the potentially long careers of many teachers, and the need for updating skills. Improve the interconnection of initial teacher education, induction and professional development to create a more coherent learning and development system for teachers." (OECD, 2005, p. 11).
Therefore, it can be said that teacher education is in its nature a LLL process and requires LLL skills for teachers.

Theme 3: Information and Communication Technologies (ICT)
ICT theme is classified as an economic issue since it has a big market, and the education sector has a significant effect on the size of this market. Moreover, ICT literacy contributes a great deal to creating a labor force that possesses the qualifications needed today.
Promoting and requiring teachers to use ICT and defining ICT competencies and standards for teachers are two suggestions frequently referred to in the documents. These suggestions point out the importance of ICT competence in all processes of recruitment, tenure, and promotion in the teaching profession and thus, make ICT competence necessary for teacher candidates.
"Meeting the internationally recognized education goals by 2015 will require significant investments in teacher training. IITE is helping Member States address the situation by focusing on improving the ICT skills of teachers." (UN, 2013b, p. 2).
"The rapid expansion of digital learning tools and Open Educational Resources also creates the need for teachers to acquire sufficient understanding of these to be able to develop relevant digital competencies and make effective and appropriate use of them in teaching." (EU, 2014, p. 2).
It was noticed that the importance of ICT in ITE is frequently emphasized in the documents. This includes integrating ICT into the ITE curriculum to equip teacher candidates with ICT skills so as both to facilitate students' learning and improve students' ICT.
"There is a clear need for countries to formulate their basic standards/benchmarks and ICT competencies for teachers, managers, and students that can serve as a basis for developing teacher training programs on ICT." (UN, 2003b, p. 35).
"The curriculum for teacher educators is often rich with strategies for presenting subject matter and pedagogy; however, it may be lean in terms of integrating technological tools for supporting that learning. Consequently, curriculum developers for teacher preparation programs must be vigilant in identifying appropriate ways to apply ICT tools throughout the coursework and experiences planned for preservice teachers." (UN, 2002c, p. 59).
"ICT should be taught in initial and in-service teacher training so that teachers become confident users of new technologies in the classroom. ICTs also offer valuable possibilities for distance CPD or blended learning courses, which combine some presence-based training with an autonomous study using digital materials." (UN, 2015c, p. 19).
The need for a pedagogic dimension of ICT is also mentioned in the documents, albeit rarely. In education, not only the use of ICT but especially the pedagogy of using ICT has been put forward; this has led to the emergence of the phenomenon of techno-pedagogical knowledge. It seems that the importance of ICT pedagogy or techno-pedagogical knowledge has not been adequately reflected in these documents.
"… these plans still need to be looked into more carefully to link them to the broader ICT for development and education goals -they need to be updated, encouraging a movement from developing basic computer literacy competencies to ICT-integrated teaching/learning. Many countries are realizing that they have developed their ICT in education policy from the technology perspective and understand the need to revise and overhaul the policy from the pedagogy-based perspective." (UN, 2003b, p. 35).
A point that should be approached carefully here is that putting such emphasis on the importance of ICT in ITE and the ICT competence of teacher candidates may result in an increase in the use of ICT in education and the expansion of the ICT market economically.

Results on Political Issues Related to ITE in the Documents
As political issues, the themes of social themes, quality in ITE, and structure of ITE emerged in the document analysis. These themes and sub-themes and codes under them were presented in Table 3.

Theme 1: Social Themes
This theme is classified as a political issue since each of the social themes shown below has a place in the political agenda and is interpreted somehow differently by different political perspectives. In the international documents, some social themes are emphasized and suggested to be covered in ITE., gender equality, sustainable development, human rights, and global citizenship were the social themes most frequently referred to.
"The ILO and UNESCO should assist governments to develop more gender-inclusive content in teacher and professional training materials." (UN, 2007, p. 18).
"Education for sustainable development (ESD) and global citizenship education (GCED), human rights, peace, and inter-cultural understanding can be seen within a range of courses for the initial training and continuing professional development of teachers." (UN, 2017a, p. 2).
"They contribute to preparing learners to be globally responsible in their role as EU citizens." (EU, 2005, p. 3).
In addition to these, preparing teacher candidates and teachers for diversity has particular importance since it is referred to more elaborately in the documents. In terms of preparing for diversity, ITE is especially emphasized, and including diversity-related mandatory courses and contents in ITE is suggested.
"Promote awareness of contextual specificity and preparation for teaching diverse student populations in preservice and in-service teacher programs, from general principles of working in diverse educational contexts to teaching specific student populations." (OECD, 2010a, p. 77).
"Discuss social equity (e.g., gender, racial, ethnic, and generational) with student teachers and identify ways in which the local community exhibits social tolerance, societal intolerance, equity, and discrimination." (UN, 2005, p. 42).
"Initial Teacher Education (ITE) should also ensure that teacher education addresses equality and non-discrimination, potential gender stereotypes and ways of dealing with diversity in the classroom." (EU, 2016b, p. 26).
"The introduction of mandatory courses aimed at better preparing teachers for diversity is a necessary step to making the curriculum more relevant to all learners, but is more effective when accompanied by an integrated curricula approach." (EU, 2017a, p. 103).
The analysis showed that the documents suggest different procedures to include social themes in ITE: (1) campus environment and events, (2) teaching skills for incorporating the issues, (3) Capacity building for teacher educators, (4) Relevant course modules, and content, (5) Benefit from NGOs "To enhance skills for integrating issues of sustainability into a range of school subjects and classroom topics." (UN, 2002a, p. 5).
"The preparation of teacher educators is one of the key challenges that ITE systems face when integrating diversity-related issues into the curriculum. … Teacher educators should be better selected and prepared to teach student teachers for diversity. … ITE curricula should address societal diversity-related issues. This should be done by adapting existing programs and incorporating diversity throughout curricula. In parallel, specially designed mandatory and specialized elective courses on diversity-relevant theoretical and methodological issues should be introduced." (EU, 2017a, p. 104, 106).
Availability of these elaborate and obvious procedure suggestions means that international institutions do aim to increase the inclusion of social themes in ITE curricula. Especially, procedures of relevant course modules and contents, and teaching skills for integration may lead to developing and adding courses to the ITE curriculum.

Theme 2: Quality in ITE
Quality in the ITE theme is classified under political issues because emerging codes related to quality assurance are essentially about the political processes of managing, administering, governing, or control. The first sub-themes that emerged was the quality assurance system. The analysis revealed that there are several suggestions and emphases on accountability in the documents. Besides, performance-or outcome-focused ITE, the need for measuring and evaluating initial and in-service TE curricula and accreditation in ITE are referred to in the documents and these issues can be seen as efforts to increase accountability in ITE.
"A major challenge in progressing the influence of the SDGs within teacher education is to secure meaningful engagement and a culture of accountability amongst policy-makers and bodies responsible for the delivery of the training of teachers." (UN, 2017a, p. 25).
"Consider accreditation by an independent agency to assure quality in teacher education. … Ensure that accreditation criteria focus on the outcomes of programs rather than on their inputs, curriculum, and processes." (OECD, 2005, p. 12).
Standardization is another issue that emerged in the analysis. In some documents standards in the teaching profession are referred to with advice for determining standards. Also, for quality, the importance of standards in ITE is underlined in the international documents.
"Development of standards, qualifications, appraisal and evaluation frameworks and support systems for teachers." (UN, 2013a, p. 4).
"Initial teacher education in high-performing countries starts with clear standards that define what teaching staff is expected to know and to be able to do upon graduation from their Initial Teacher Education." (EU, 2012a, p. 32).
"Internationally agreed standards need to be established for teacher education programs so that their comparability is ensured." (UN, 2014, p. 53).
The emphasis on standards both in the teaching profession and ITE means that standardization is promoted. As a result, it can be said that the international documents give importance to accountability and accreditation as elements of quality assurance system and to standards and standardization process as a reference point of these elements.

Theme 3: Structure of ITE
The structure of the ITE theme is classified as political because the issues are associated with decentralization and empowerment. The first sub-theme flexibility in ITE is underlined and suggested in the documents. The suggestions have two specific dimensions. One is about possibilities arising from flexibility in ITE curricula and the other concerns providing alternative routes in ITE so as to increase flexibility diversity of student teachers, and therefore, of future teachers.
"Provide curriculum structures that enable people to enroll in part-time or via distance education and to combine teacher education with work or family responsibilities. … Increase the common components of teacher preparation for different types of schools and levels of education to increase opportunities for working in different schools. … Provide consecutive or post-graduate programs of teacher education to give opportunities to train as a teacher after having completed studies in another field." (OECD, 2005, p. 11).
The issue of autonomy and involvement also emerged in the analysis of the teacher education-related documents. Both autonomy and involvement in ITE are important because they contribute to the status of the profession and empower ITE institutions and educators. Furthermore, the benefit coming from the collaboration of different actors in ITE is also underlined.
"Involving different stakeholders in the policy-making process, whilst respecting each partner's autonomy, leads to stronger ITE systems, based on collaborative governance. This could include reforms which bring together the national and local coordination of ITE, cluster providers at the regional level, or help institutions work together to establish a joint core curriculum and final examinations." (EU, 2015b, p. 12).
Findings showed that flexibility, autonomy, involvement, and collaboration are put forward in the documents. At this stage, the key concern is the extent to which these issues are included in national ITE curriculum development efforts.

Discussion, Conclusion and Implications
In this study, the ITE-related international documents were analyzed to reveal economic and political issues. According to the results, entrepreneurship, LLL, and ICT emerged as economic issues; social themes, quality in ITE, and structure of ITE emerged as political issues.
Entrepreneurship education is based on the assumption that entrepreneurship can be learned and taught (Gorman, Hanlon & King, 1997). At first, entrepreneurship education was confined to business studies and their methods. Later on, both the understanding and practices of entrepreneurship education were improved and a pedagogical approach, which was extended to all dimensions of education, developed. The present study shows that the international institutions emphasize entrepreneurship in teacher education in order to promote entrepreneurship education in K-12. In this sense, they suggest incenting teachers, defining deficiencies and needs in ITE, and regulating ITE curriculum and methods in ITE. The findings are consistent several studies in terms of suggesting to promote entrepreneurship in ITE (Adeyemo, 2009;Baranović & Stibrić, 2007;Deveci & Seikkula-Leino, 2018) and regulations in ITE curriculum for this promotion (Fagan, 2006;Gustafsson-Pesonen & Remes, 2012;van Dam, Schipper & Runhaar, 2010). Pedagogically, for entrepreneurship education to be more effective, it needs to be integrated into different subjects. Including entrepreneurship in ITE curricula may enable such integration.
Sociologically, from the consensus perspective, emphasizing and integrating entrepreneurship in ITE and K-12 can be seen as a step for education's function of selection for economic efficiency. Students will improve their entrepreneurship skills in education, and the ones who do this more effectively will enjoy the better career and income opportunities. As a result, total productivity will increase. Leffler andSvedberg (2005), Guedalla Herlau, Armer andQasier (2001), and Henry et al. (2003) claim that entrepreneurship education contributes to economic growth, and so both individuals and the community benefit from it. On the other hand, from the conflict perspective, the idea that education provides equal opportunities for students to become entrepreneurs can be questioned. Entrepreneurship is generally associated with recognizing opportunities. However, Kwiatkowski (2004) reminds us that the possibility of using resources to realize opportunities is also important and that social capital -one's social circle providing support in terms of economic know-how or increasing opportunities -is a very key resource. Social capital is mainly formed regardless of education. There are also other outof-school experiences improving skills directly related to entrepreneurship. Moreover, Holmgren and From (2005) claim that entrepreneurship education aims to improve students' entrepreneurial identity -appreciating entrepreneurs and desiring to be one of them -rather than entrepreneurship skills. In this way, Holmgren and From (2005) puts entrepreneurship education into the symbolic control area defined by Bernstein (2000) and considers it a realization of a neoliberal restructuring process. In other words, when entrepreneurship skills are included in objectives of education, students from higher socio-economic classes tend to achieve more in favor of opportunities and experiences provided by their status rather than entrepreneurship education in school. Moreover, non-achievers do not consider this situation problematic, because although they are left behind in terms of entrepreneurial skills, they achieved in gaining an entrepreneurial identity via education.
The LLL is gaining skills and competencies to keep learning throughout life. Schools are generally taken as the place where LLL skills are developed (Selvi, 2011) and teachers are responsible for improving both their students' and their own LLL skills (Scales, 2008). Therefore, LLL is already an important issue for a teacher and in teacher education. The results of this study show that the international institutions consider LLL as important for the teaching profession and suggest promoting it in both initial and in-service teacher training. The suggestions include integrating LLL-related courses into national ITE curricula and an LLLbased pedagogic approach into ITE. Integrating LLL into ITE seems to be very advantageous for teacher candidates because it seems not only the subject matter, but also student characteristics and teaching and learning approaches are changing continuously, and a teacher's keep with up all these changes requires CPD (Scales et al., 2011) after ITE (Dolan, 2012). Suggestions of including LLL related courses and approaches into ITE seem consistent with studies (Crawley, 2012;Hunde & Tacconi, 2014) revealing the effectiveness of such courses in ITE. However, as can be understood from the results, improving teachers' LLL skills is not the only aim of emphasizing LLL in teacher education. Another aim is to improve their students', and so LLL skills of any individual in the community.
At first, an economic contribution based on an increase in employment is expected from the acquisition of LLL skills by more people (Selvi, 2011). For example, integrating LLL into higher education is considered as a relationship between universities and the market that enables a reciprocal exchange of demands and services (Kogan, 2001). Such expectations and relationships seem consistent with the economic efficiency goal of the consensus approach. More basically, individuals with LLL skills can be considered as prone to accommodate themselves to change -i.e., gaining new skills and competencies demanded by the labor market. Therefore, they are expected to contribute to economic efficiency more. However, another perspective, which disturbs this sacred perception and position of LLL, can be found. Fejes and Nicoll (2008) claim that LLL should be politically analyzed with a Foucauldian perspective and that power relations in LLL resulting from productive strategies should be discussed. In this context, LLL can be considered as a form or means of governance to control or determine the discourse of education. From a similar perspective, Fogde (2008) blames LLL for becoming an instrument of self-governance in the labor market. In other words, the self of the individual is shaped to accommodate what the employer demands. To realize this, employment-and skill-related learning are promoted while other types of learning are neglected (Andersson, 2008). An example is a focus on practice-related skills in teacher education, rather than the intellectual development of teacher candidates.
ICT in education has been one of the hot topics in education for a long time. International institutions are seen to promote teachers' ICT usage. With this aim, they suggest defining ICT competencies for teachers and including ICT in ITE more. These results seem consistent with other studies focusing on ICT in ITE (Bhattacharjee & Deb, 2016;Gudmundsdottir & Hatlevik, 2018). For many years, courses on using computers were included in ITE curricula. However, because ICT in education has already crossed that line, teachers are expected to integrate ICT into their teaching more comprehensively, and this requires a more dynamic and extensive place for ICT in ITE curricula (Martinovic & Zhang, 2012;Reyes, Reading, Doyle, & Gregory, 2017) Training future teachers to become more competent in ICT is obviously necessary and beneficial because ICT provides golden opportunities for accessing, transforming and even producing knowledge.
As explained above, emphasizing ICT in the ITE curriculum aims to improve teachers' and students' ICT competencies and their usage of ICT. Furthermore, as in education, the visibility of ICT has increased in business life and all types of jobs -both higher-paid and lower-paidrequire ICT skills. Based on this, improving students' ICT skills probably results in making future labor more qualified. In this context, education functions to select and lead students to proper career paths according to their performance in education and to enhance economic efficiency. However, just as in entrepreneurship, improvement in ICT skills does not occur only in school. Economic opportunity differences may create substantial inequalities in improving ICT skills. Moreover, two individuals from different social classes but having the same ICT skills are most probably presented with highly different career and income opportunities because of their social capital. Beyond these, it can be said that increasing ICT usage in ITE and K-12, etc., will expand the ICT market incrementally. It is obvious that the expected return for the increase in importance and usage of ICT should be pedagogic progress because the context is educational. However, many "ICT in education" discussions, and even full-scale ICT practices in education (Pamuk, Ergun, Çakir, Yilmaz, & Ayas, 2013), maybe miss this pedagogic return aspect. Therefore, the conflict perspective may question the direction of ICT growth in education: from market to pedagogy or from pedagogy to market.
The results of the document analysis show that the international institutions suggest involving the social themes of gender equality, sustainable development, human rights, global citizenship, and diversity in ITE and its curriculum. They also provide procedure suggestionsincluding curriculum regulations -showing how to involve these issues. Findings on promoting human rights (Adami, 2014), gender (Lahelma, Tainio, 2019;Skelton, 2007), and preparing for diversity (Banks & Banks, 2001;Florian et al., 2010;Rowan, Bourke, Brownlee & Ryan 2021;Valentin, 2006;Yuan, 2018) themes in ITE is consistent with the relevant literature. Even, emphasizing diversity among other social themes is also consistent. This is not surprising because most of the other social themes can be addressed using diversity. Day by day, the world is becoming a smaller place and diversity becomes a phenomenon even for small communities. Therefore, each teacher needs to prepare diversity, and the most important role and responsibility of this preparation are given to ITE (Townsend & Bates, 2007). ITE is expected to help teacher candidates think about diversity factors like race, gender, ethnicity, cultures (Banks & Banks, 2001) and become aware of their own beliefs and in the end transform these beliefs (Gay, 2010). Such processes require diversity-related courses and content. According to the results of this study, the documents suggest such courses and contents as compulsory in the ITE curriculum. Similar suggestions are also available in the literature (Valentin, 2006). In terms of gender, this study found that the documents, published in several years from 2003 to 2018, emphasize the promotion of gender quality in ITE. About this issue, Lahelma and Tainio's (2019) document analysis resulted that even there is progress, the promotion of gender equality is a difficult and long mission. From this perspective, maintaining to emphasize gender equality in the documents seems meaningful.
The social themes seem to be related to the social justice dimension (Hansen, 2008) of teacher education and it is obvious that integrating them into ITE curricula is beneficial for teacher candidates, their future students, and society. Firstly, teacher candidates educated with these concerns will be more competent pedagogically because teachers need to be prepared for diverse classes in terms of gender, race, religion, language, socio-economic level, and disabilities. Also, because teaching is a social profession, equipping teachers with more social themes will be helpful in any context.
Including social themes in ITE seems to be appreciated by the consensus approach since teachers with awareness of these issues can contribute to the socialization function of education (Durkheim, 2006). Especially human rights and equality which can be seen as keystones of modern society should be transmitted to future generations. However, when it comes to inclusion and diversity, the situation can be a bit complicated. In the consensus approach's ideal society in which social cohesion and order are indispensable (Durkheim, 1956), the promotion of diversity can be problematic (Lauder et al., 2006). Also in the socialization process, the perception of diversity has an evolution "from melting pot to multiculturalism" (Reisch, 2008, p. 788), that is, from a society in which differences are melted down and mixed to unify them, to a society in which differences can exist together whilst preserving their originality. Therefore, the relationship between social themes and the consensus approach highly depends on its temporal definition of socialization.
On the other hand, from the conflict approach's perspective, teachers' equipping with such social themes can provide remedies for the inequalities in the educational context. Here, social inclusion and diversity have special importance. These issues require social inclusion of the diverse groups in society and non-hierarchical recognition of their differences and subjectivities. Without these requirements, education may function as assimilation of the minority into the majority. However, how these issues are discussed in ITE will determine their actual function. For instance, in the literature different understandings of gender equality (Chatillon et al., 2018), even different conceptualizations of gender (Jagose, 1996) are available. In ITE, content focusing on gender equality may underline binary gender understanding and undermine others. Even the pedagogical approach used to discuss social themes in ITE can be decisive. Therefore, it can be said that integration of social themes into ITE to improve teacher candidates in terms of these issues is appreciated by the conflict approach either. However, how to discuss these issues and what these issues mean are important for the conflict approach since they can be both social remedies and means of social control.
According to the results, the documents rely on accountability, accreditation, and standards for the quality of ITE. TE literature on these issues agrees with these results. Firstly, accountability is quite important to increase the quality of ITE and standard-based evaluations as one of the elements of accountability aim not only rating but also improvement (Darling-Hammond, 2020). However, some others criticize assuming accountability's taken for granted contribution to quality and assert that this may hide power relations underlying accountability (Cochran-Smith et al., 2017;Tuck, 2013). Although accountability is originally a democratic process of being responsible to students, parents, and the rest of the society, it shifted to technical and directorial issues aiming to establish external and central audits (Jenlink, 2017). Also, accreditation is defined as an indicator of quality (Zumwalt & Craig, 2009) since pieces of evidence of quality are presented and recorded in an accreditation process. However, in the ITE context finding or presenting this evidence of quality is quite difficult by nature of teaching to teach (Wilson & Youngs, 2009). Finally, standardization contributes to quality in ITE since it is to guarantees meeting the minimum qualifications (Roth & Pipho, 1990). But what the standards are and by whom they are defined are very important. Because, they may have detrimental effects like increasing centralization and weakening the profession by overemphasizing the technical dimension of teaching (Bates, 2007;Mayer & Rein, 2016). It is obvious that quality issues are important for ITE but the moral and social quality of ITE should be considered besides the academic quality.
About the structure of ITE, flexibility, autonomy, and involvement issues emerged in the documents. Flexibility in ITE is generally associated with alternative programs to traditional higher education level programs. Although, studies on the effectiveness of alternative ITE programs seem indecisive (Zumwalt & Craig, 2009) and views are supporting these programs (Kitchen & Petrarca, 2016), it is asserted that evidence-based studies step forward traditional programs (Mayer & Rein, 2016;Roth & Pipho, 1990). Emphasizing autonomy in ITE so emancipation of ITE institution is seen as important and expected to enhance TE and teacher quality (Bates, 2007). Also, the involvement of different stakeholders in teacher education policymaking contributes to both the democratization and social justice dimension of TE (Zeichner, 2016). Although about alternative programs, findings in the documents are not supported sufficiently in ITE literature, autonomy and involvement are desired issues for ITE.
All in all, in the teacher education-related documents published by international institutions, different economic and political issues emerged. The institutions suggest that these are emphasized in ITE and integrated into ITE curricula. Although the documents are mainly in parallel with the consensus approach, it is thought that these issues should be handled with perspectives of both the consensus and the conflict approaches in ITE. At this point, the extent to which these issues and suggestions are included in national ITE curriculum development efforts is important. Therefore, further studies can be done in order to examine national documents from the consensus and conflict approaches points of view. Comparative analysis among different countries would also be helpful to understand the differences in the reflection of international policies. This study is limited to ITE, however, an analysis of documents in terms of in-service teacher education would be very beneficial for revealing perspectives in teachers' professional development.